• fashion: some fashion photographers take their models underwater and come up with some amazing ideas, realised on medium-format cameras like Hasselblad.
• technology: many structures (and boats) need to be inspected and photography or video is often used.
• movies: many movies have underwater scenes and this brings the camera underwater.

• format: colour prints, black&white prints, digital prints, slides, digital slides, video, movie. Why would all these require different criteria of judgment? Understandably, video and movie introduce new qualities like story line, sound and cutting but why are the still picture formats so incomparable? Most competitions accept only slides, the original slides.
• macro: the miniature world enlarged and the race is on for the most enlargement of the smallest subjects.
• medium angle/ standard: a rectangle cut from the real world that is somehow different from macro and wide angle.
• wide angle: the wide world reduced to a small picture, with its accompanying distortions. There was a time that only few could afford the very expensive Nikonos wide angle lens, and they tended to clean out the competitions. Why?
• panorama: probably identical to wide angle.
• natural light: strobe lighting is forbidden, however subtle.
• creative: a category that allows you to fiddle with the image, such that a distortion of reality becomes pleasing in a new way.
• novice: encouragement category for eternal losers against an army of experienced semi-professionals.
• freshwater: to give close-to home shots of poor environments a chance against those from far away blue seas with abundant life.
• temperate seas: as fresh water. Taking photos in cold, dirty water adds to challenges while detracting from quality.
• cold water and blue water: as above
• conservation: a politically correct category
• wrecks: photos of ship and aircraft wrecks have for a time been cleaning out competitions.
• togetherness: one of many possible groupings like wallpaper (a repetitive pattern),
• animal life: the life that moves and does not co-operate much. Fish photos, dolphins and so on.
• static & plant life: the life that sits still and is therefore like a beginners' category
• topside: photos above or by the sea.
• portfolio: a mix-n-match of some of the above categories, showing that the photographer is versatile and understands what he does. It also gives a chance to the systematically good photographers who would otherwise have been disqualified by the one lucky shot of others.

• perfection: your photo must be sharp where it matters and invite no criticism on minor matters like composition and obvious imperfections such as models with loose bits on them, cropping, scatter and so on. Photos that do not pass this criterion should normally end up in the bin. Then again, a scruffy diver with totally imperfect gear imparts a sense of reality.
• political correctness: your photo, no matter how exciting and perfect, should not show a diver touching any object. It saddens me how this requirement has pervaded the world of adventure and photography. (sigh)
• contrast: contrast-rich and deeply saturated photos invoke the wow reflex. We do not seem worried that they do not look like the real thing.
• large, dangerous, cuddly: the wow animals of the sea always bring your photos to the top.
• confluence: the confluence (flowing together) of situations brings a sense of exceptionality, which we strangely accept as the ideal state of normalness (oops): a dolphin + setting sun + bird in sky + baby dolphin + poor kid watching + .. + .. and so on. In many cases you can make two situations happen together like nice plant + passing fish, even if you have to wait a while for that fish to pass. For three you usually need to be very lucky or begin arranging matters: nice plant + passing fish + diver in the background. The important message is to seek confluences and not rest before you have given it a thought and a try. In my opinion, naturalness should weigh high with the judges but it doesn't because it is so close to being common and boring. Yet for showing the public what the underwater world looks like, this should be the highest requirement.
• rareness: the rare situations are prize winners, but only if the judges realise that they are rare. Something rarely photographed may not at all be rare in nature. It is the wow reflex that matters. When deciding which of your photos to enter into a competition, look at its past history and choose from your photos preferably those that have not been seen before, those most likely to wow the judges.
• colour: colour photos win over monotone ones. The message is: don't spend your money on cameras but on travelling to blue waters with richly coloured creatures:) The ability of the photographer is often confused with the look of the subject. Underwater photography is all about colour for where on land do we see so much colour and so brilliant? Recognise the most colourful subjects and spend more film on these for entering into competitions.

• common creatures: you visit a kelp forest and your mind immediately focuses on the exceptions, not the kelp. The more exceptional, the more our minds are drawn to it. Therefore you miss your most important opportunity, to take very good shots of the kelp. The kelps are everywhere and can be found in every lighting situation and state of perfection. Spend time to seek and take the best shots of the common creatures, because next dive may be different. Your next holiday or expedition certainly will. Use different lenses for different effects. Make what is common your priority.
• the stupid fish: you've tried to take photos of this species of fish but everytime it failed because it is so shy. But now you come across a stupid one, who doesn't seem to mind. Recognise it as a unique opportunity and spend time and film on it. Call your model to interact. Realise that perhaps no underwater photographer (and yourself) will ever meet this individual again.
• night dives: divers who have never dived by night have seen only half the underwater world. For the photographer the night dive is one of the most productive ones. True, you won't have natural lighting, and your wide anlge lens is useless but plenty of opportunities present themselves for macro and standard lenses. You'll find the day shift sleeping and shy fish approachable, and you'll meet the night shift of a different world of species, many of which are very colourful and/or exceptional.

Tip: don't burn out on day dives. Eat only half your dinner. Dive alone if nobody joins. Have someone on alert till you return. Several times I have found the whole dive company asleep upon returning from a night dive and found climbing back on board a major performance in the dark with all the photographic gear.
Tip: during most night dives you will be plagued by fast swimming zooplankton intent on destroying every photo with the very prominent scatter they produce. So what can you do?
• buddy light: normally your strobe has a modelling light attached, which gives you a preview of the photo to be taken, but it attracts the little bugs too close. Ask your buddy to light your subject from further away.
• re-aim the modelling light: point it slightly sideways but leaving enough light for autofocussing.
• move strobe back: place the strobe further back, or at least its modelling light.
• timing: wave movement moves the bugs in and out of the light. Time your shot when the bugs are out of the picture.
• swift action: prepare your settings, then move in swiftly so that the bugs just stay behind, and take your photo decisively.
• turn light off: turn the modelling light off for a while before moving in on the subject with the light switched on again.
• current: seek the current which may move the bugs out of sight if strong enough.
• repeat dives: on chartered dive trips you will find yourself diving in a variety of places over which you normally have little control. You rely on experienced operators keen to show you the best, so why repeat your dive on the same spot? Here are a number of good reasons:
• familiarity: not just you are more familiar with the spot, but so are the fishes with you and your model. On your repeat dive you will be more effective with your time.
• lens change: you can visit the same subjects with different lens types.
• light change: the incident angle of the light changes as the sun moves across the sky, creating new opportunities and perhaps the perfect lighting you need.
• night dive: as you are already familiar with the dive spot, this will make your night dive more effective.

The image above shows some of the most important opportunities given by the form of the seascape (from left to right):

• a= rockpool: rockpools have their own assemblages of living organisms, including fishes that are found only or mostly there. A rockpool usually has a very tranquil surface that reflects the bottom, inviting for images where reflection is the theme. Make sure to wear sun-protective clothing and protect your knees too. Your camera should be light and also your strobe. Wide angle, standard and macro lenses.
• b= shallow water: an area of shallow water invites for studies of reflection, with or without model. Use a wide angle lens. You can play with Snell's window which shows very clearly when the water is calm.
• c= wall near a sandy patch: you can weigh yourself down and steady yourself on the sandy patch without damage to the environment. From here you can reach the creatures on the wall. All lens types.
• d= sandy patch: the sandy patch reflects the sunlight, which gives bottom lighting, soft-toned images and nearly twice the amount of light. Light will more readily enter the mask of your model. Shiny fishes are more easily photographed without strobe. Light penetrates more easily the sheen on fish, revealing their deeper colours. Make the sandy patch your light studio. All lens types.
• e= the ledge: a ledge gives you the chance for low-aspect photographs, and where unobstructed, a deep blue sea in the background. Standard and macro lenses.
• f= the cave: looking out from inside a cave gives you a natural frame and hides scatter and dust. Exploit its possibilities with and without model using ambient light. Standard lens and wide angle lens. Note that the overhang at the entrance to the cave will have an extraordinary collection of fragile life which is protected from sedimentation.
• g= the shade: the shaded side of a cliff accommodates different assemblages of creatures that are usually found deeper down, because they don't need to compete with sun-loving creatures that grow much faster. Here you find the most colourful rock dwellers. Because rock dwellers grow outward from the rock face rather than upward, you can take low-aspect shots here. All lenses.

Important note! The wide angle lens gives a pleasing balanced result when the subject is nearby in the shade (no colour dilution) and the model in the ambient sunlight further away. It is the preferred method of mixed-light photography without filters. See the mixed-light chapter.
• h= the edge: the edge of the shade caused by a high cliff is where you'll find the cathedral light. Exploit its possibilities, particularly with a model. Wide angle lens. You also need calm water and a blue sky.

f039315: necklace seaweeds in a shallow estuary. The blue sky penetrates through Snell's window with some of the shore as well. Strobe light was used to balance the scene. 13mm lens. Viz 3m. You need to hold your breath for this.

f042432: tree stem and weeds in a freshwater lake, with a model behind. Notice the ledge in the foreground. The wide anlge lens was aimed horizontally, revealing only the reflections. 13mm lens. Viz 10m. No strobe.

f038305: under a ledge, often at the entrance to caves, abundantly rich life can be found. 28mm lens. Viz 8m.

f038723: on a shaded wall, one finds sea life which is normally found much deeper down. 35mm lens. Viz 20m.

f042314: a blue sky and calm water in the early morning give the right conditions for wide angle photography in a lake. 13mm lens. Viz 6m. No strobe.

f042636: peeping out from a small natural cave with two entrances. The image was overexposed and colour-corrected in the digital darkroom. 13mm lens. Viz 8m. No strobe.

f042911: elegant wrasse (Anampses elegans) is rare in NZ, and very skittish. A repeat dive was made to cash in on the progress made in the previous one, resulting in several good shots. 50mm lens. Viz 10m.

f029214: a snorkeldiver follows a longtailed stingray (Dasyatis thetidis) during its departure from the sand. Taken by natural light, the belly of the stingray is lit up by reflection from the sand. 16mm lens. Viz 8m.

f012813: cathedral light radiating from a stalked kelp hiding the sun. Because this plant is the most common, this kind of opportunity can easily be found. 16mm lens, 7m viz. No strobe.

f021031: a school of jack mackerels (Trachurus novaezelandiae) resting above a sandy spot. Notice their bellies glowing from the reflected light. Natural lighting. 35mm lens. 10m viz.

f044829: a diver explores a cave system under a coral flat. For best cave photos choose shallow caves and an overcast day. Use fast film and a tripod and let the model move slowly. 13mm lens. 25m viz. No strobe.

I've underestimated the intelligence of the longer-lived fishes. Understandably, because aren't these just cold-blooded, primitive creatures? Yes, but I noticed that many species make chimpanzee-like decisions towards their partners and rivals and towards divers and one can meaningfully interact with many. But aren't they stupid enough to bite the bait and get caught? Yes, just as stupid as people who crash their cars on an icy road. It has to do with unfamiliarity with a new kind of situation. Likewise, we are equally stupid underestimating them.

The moment you splash into the sea, your arrival is announced in very loud terms to a large community who immediately confirm their observation to one another by a fright reaction (often very slight). And then they continue as if nothing happened. In the meantime your presence is carefully followed by some, and their reactions by others further away. If fish were really stupid, they would all take off immediately. Some large fish have indeed learnt to distrust people and they slide away unnoticeably.

I like to suggest to you not to underestimate the fishes you are going to take photos of, but rather, learn their body language to your advantage. Consider these elements of behaviour which may take years to acquire:

• patience: fish do not live in the hustle of a 21st century city. Their time has essentially stood still but even so they are busy with their own needs. It is up to you to adapt and ease up and be patient, even though you cannot match theirs ever. Take time. Sit still. Move slowly. Read the signs. We know that your dive time is limited and that time is money, but this does not weigh underwater. You want co-operative subjects, don't you?
• stress signals: recognise typical signals of stress:
• erect fins, especially the dorsal fins are a clear warning
• skittishness, sudden deviations from course, overreacting to your movements
• to and fro movement as if uncertain whether to flee or to stay (ambivalence)
• turning their backs to you, ready to flee.
• split schools where one half wants something different from the other
• size and posturing: you are a big animal and in the fish world, anything bigger than oneself is a danger. So you are by their experience, a very dangerous animal. You can reduce this perception by reducing your size, turning your front towards them (your back works better though), hiding partly behind a stone or plant and not showing your full size. Your bubbles are also part of your size as they ascend to the surface. Thus your size increases with depth.
• being alone: two divers together form a doubled threat, so you will have more kudos with fish when you're alone. Fish and other animals get confused by more than one predator, and they can't count well. So two divers is interpreted as MANY divers.
• arm movement: we mentioned this as a definite no-no before but repeat it again because it is very distressing to fish. Fish are used to streamlined shapes and predators that can attack only in one direction: forward. They do so by a sudden sprint, or a jump, but always forward. Therefore a predator presenting its side is of no concern. But people have these strange arms that do strike sideways! It scares the hell out of fish. Does this mean you cannot use your hands? Yes, you can use them slowly, for holding. But you can not beat your arms for swimming or stabilising or stayin at the same depth or for going up. Make sure you are perfectly trimmed and that your lungs can do the fine-trimming.
• frontal attack: when you look straight at an animal, this is interpreted as a frontal attack, a sign of aggression. Fish look straight at your eyes and your face. To minimise aggression, turn your body slightly away and don't face them head-on, but rather through the corners of your eyes. A very good way to get closer to fish is to turn your back to them and to approach them sideways. An even better way is to ignore them altogether. If I see a desirable shot coming up, I know that going straight for it is a loss situation. I turn my back to what I want most, and work on some other things, such as adjusting the strobe. Then I cautiously creep nearer. Once the fish shows signs of ease, I approach a little more. This is the only way to get really good shots, even though it eats into your dive time.
• retreat: your most powerful move forward is retreat! When you retreat at the first symptoms of distress, even symbolically by looking away or so, your body gives a very strong and important message that is interpreted as reassuring.
• talking: fish don't talk do they? So why should we talk? Well, every diver DOES TALK, very loud in fact and very irregularly by the bubbles with every breath. It is a very disturbing sound for the fishes, as it contains low frequency noises and seems to continue as bubbles break while ascending, and it is so discontinuous. Fish need continuity as reassurance, and you can help this by humming a bit and making low frequency reassuring noises. Even though such noises are strange to them, their continuity becomes reassuring. They also know where you are even when they turn their backs to you. In this manner you continuously reveal your position to them, without any surprises.
• to touch or not? the modern diver has been imbued with the idea that touching the environment is akin to destroying it. What is so confusing is that this idea is both true and absolute nonsense. What should we do? The confusion comes from dense commercial diving in rich, sensitive environments. In such places the mere touching of things by thousands of divers in succession, can indeed leave a mark even though life repairs. But when you dive in a wave-torn environment not hammered by thousands of divers each year, your touching or even killing, won't leave a distinguishable mark. Everything is relative to the amount of natural damage done by storms (and other organisms) and how quickly nature repairs. A photographer is easily fingered at for causing damage because he needs to steady himself. Yes, it happens, even when being careful. But fortunately not everyone is a photographer. I have had many incredible experiences playing with and touching fish, but unfortunately a photographer cannot take photos of himself. My advice to photographers is: don't dive in busy places; take a live-aboard that travels around and make your own rules.

f031026: on a single breath, the model gently herds a school of grey knife fish (Bathystethus cultratus) towards the photographer. A model who also has a way with animals is a gem to keep. Natural light. 28mm lens. 30m viz.

f035011: diver and young seals in a protected corner of the reef. Repeating one's dives on the same spot will eventually familiarise the pups for real play. 16mm lens + strobe. 10m viz.

f045028: a black-spotted puffer (Arothron nigropunctatus) is comfortable being handled by the photographer. Notice that the strobe comes from the wrong angle and should have come from above-right. We changed the strobe bracket to do this quickly. 28mm lens.

f029625: an inquisitive sharpnosed pufferfish (Canthigaster callisterna) inspects an outstretched finger. We are not the only observers and explorers. The strobe light should have come from top right. 35mm lens.

• purpose: when diving with a photographer you must agree on the main purpose of the dive: taking photos and not just any photos. Good photos. Perfect photos. THE BEST photos. So it is not just co-operation that is wanted from you but a full commitment.
• lens: be aware what a lens means and what it expects of you.
• macro & super macro: When a macro lens is fitted, you won't be acting as a model. So take a more convenient mask and be more relaxed. You will most likely be needed to scout for new subjects as the photographer is still busy with the previous subject. It will be a slow dive on a rich tapestry of life.
• medium angle: the medium angle lens 35-28mm is a general workhorse the photographer uses when unfamiliar with a new dive spot. It enables some model photography, particularly in close proximity of a subject like a fish. Only your head and hands will feature in these shots.
• wide angle zoom: often the wide angle zoom lens 35-20mm is used, and this allows for very nice modelling shots, as well as fish closeups. A large part of your body may feature in these shots.
• wide angle and fisheye: the 12-16mm wide angle lenses invite for habitat shots where the model is a welcome addition. Your entire body will feature in these shots. But remember that the photographer may also wish to have photos without a model in it. Be aware that your position in a wide angle photo is very difficult to determine, so many of these require you to slowly swim in on an angle. See comments below.
• gear: your gear must not only be perfect. It must also look perfect. So you must make sure more than anyone else that loose straps are tucked away, spare regulators invisible and so on.
• mask: experienced divers wear black masks because these block reflections in the glass. A photographer without black mask is a beginner. But the model needs a mask that lets light in from the sides, through the rubber. Its reflections can be a nuisance, but there is no other way. Your mask also has a large glass because light reflects outside the 90 degrees Snell's window, making your face invisible most of the time.
• mask angle: if your face is to be seen, your mask must face the photographer to within 30 degrees (Snell's window is 45 degrees of tilt), which is almost head-on. But your eyes can still be turned away to the subject. The photographer must solve the dilemma between firing the light into your mask but also in the right direction on the subject. It is a juggling act that you should be aware of. Your position in the frame will usually be on the opposite side of the strobe. If the strobe is placed left over the camera, you will most likely be to the right in the frame. Anticipate this.
• make-up: some photographers wish their models to use make-up, which adds to their preparation time. It also means that you must have a very good mask that does not leak or fog up, because you can't take it off under water. This mask must be treated beforehand with an anti-fog agent.
• self-help: the photographer has his hands full and his mind set on other matters. So you must become entirely self-reliant in putting the gear on and landing on board or through surf or on rocks.
• signals: underwater signals are not as important as staying in visual contact with the photographer. Every ten seconds or so, cast a glance in his direction because he may need you. Time underwater is so short.
• shade: a model cannot be seen in the shade. So this is not an area for you during a shoot.
• sun angle: the sunlight appears to come from straight overhead, but it has an angle, depending on how low the sun stands in the sky. Be aware that most shoots you will be required to face the light and not away from the light. So this determines your position relative to the photographer but exceptions are many. You may  need to orientate yourself relative to the strobe.
• camera angle: particularly in wide angle photography where your entire body is often seen, the angle of your body relative to the camera, the strobe and the sunlight is important. The photographer can be in a terrible dilemma here, as everything has to tie in with foreground and background as well. This is what makes wide angle photography so creative but difficult.
• swimming in: because your position relative to the camera is very critical, many wide angle photos need the model to slowly swim in while the photographer takes one to three photos while waiting for the strobe in between. Be aware that your angle relative to the camera and thus from which angle in the picture you are swimming in, is very critical. Just imagine you are doing this while breath-hold diving!
• doing again: Particularly in wide angle photography, you may need to do it over and over again, as each time new insight is gained and new opportunities created. It is a learning process well worth the inconvenience, but it may eat into dive time.
• shading the camera: on many an occasion you will be required to place your body or head in the way of the sunlight to create radiating sunrays (cathedral light). The photographer can't move much because foreground and background don't. So you need to look at your shadow and place your shadow over the camera lens. Always be aware of your shadow, because often it must not be seen in the photo.
• strobe recharge: after each flash, the strobe needs to recharge before the next photo is taken and the photographer waits for this before taking the next photo. Be aware of this and expect another photo after a wait.
• timing: in underwater photography timing is very critical. It begins with your planning of depth and dive time, choosing the right opportunities for the type of situation, but also of timing the photo with the water movement. Productivity can drop steeply if you breathe out at the wrong time. Watch the photographer for a clue. He must often hold his breath to steady the camera, and so do you.
• herding: in the build-up to a photo, the model can often quite successfully herd a fish or a school of fish in the direction of the photographer. The least she can achieve is to reduce the distance between fish and photographer. This is where you are the creator of the opportunity and the photo, and it is not easy. You have to learn to read signals of unease and back off temporarily. You must have the patience to at the same time create the moment, but also be in the right place to be in it. You must observe how the photographer changes position for the ever changing composition. Most of these attempts go wrong somewhere but when it all goes right, adrenaline rushes.

• left or right?: does PADI dictate where you should hang your snorkel or gauges? Not for you. You must rearrange all your dive gear to suit your photography best. If you hold the camera with your right hand, then your gauges, snorkel and regulator must be on the left, and visa-versa. Try it out and then stick with what is best for you.
• side-exhaust regulator: only a small side-exhaust regulator gives you unobstructed access to your camera and eyepiece. For a steady photo it is necessary that the camera be steadied by your head, the most stable platform on your body. So getting real close is important. But few regulator brands come with a side-exhaust. Oceanic is perhaps your smallest option and even then you may wish to replace its mouthpiece for a smaller one. Only a side-exhaust regulator allows you to choose between left and right handed use. A side exhaust regulator is also excellent for scouting by manta board (a hydroplane pulled by the boat on a long leash) as other regulators then begin free-flowing.
• breath-holding: there's no device to help you here, but if you can't hold your breath easily for at least 20 seconds, you are at a disadvantage. When breathing out, the forming bubbles shake the camera which is to be avoided. Moviemakers often do not hold their breath long enough. You must be at ease breathing at full lung capacity (top of breath) as well as on low lung capacity (bottom of breath) in order to regulate your effective buoyancy without the need for inflating and deflating the BCD. Breath-controlled buoyancy is quick, sure, easily reversible and easy on air and accurate.
• inflator: inflating your BCD (Buoyancy Compensating Device or trimvest) should go smoothly without clicks and puffs which are a sure way to scare fish. Even so, you will try to do all buoyancy fine-control with your lungs.
• weights: the right weight on your belt is critical and the weight of the camera underwater must be taken into account. When you work in slight wave action or currents, you may take an extra 1-2kg. Particularly movie makers will need that extra weight.
• weight belt: normally the weight belt sits securely in the waist, but photographers will benefit from a looser arrangement such that the belt slips down onto one's hips for extra stability when kneeling, and can be pulled to almost across the chest for even keel when swimming. The belt may need to be turned backward with weights in front when snorkelling or rotated with weights in the back to compensate for the weight of the camera in front. In any case make sure that you are not continually fighting an imbalance that can be corrected so easily.
• tripod: under water it is very difficult to take photos that exploit the full sharpness of lens and film. Many shots require relatively long exposure times (1/60 - 1/10s) for which hand-holding is inadequate. I have been using tripods for as long as I have been taking movies and stills and cannot imagine how good shots can be taken otherwise. In almost all cases a small tripod suffices, and even then extending only one of its legs is all that is needed. What photographers don't realise is that even for strobe-lit macro photography, some form of stabilisation is needed to achieve ultimate sharpness!
• mask: your mask has black rubber to avoid reflection from bright objects behind you. Otherwise you will have difficulty peering into the viewfinder. Think about placing two +1 or +2 Diopter closeup lenses in the bottom of your mask in order to be able to read the camera's fine-print dials and to look at very small organisms during macro photography.