Protected areas are established to meet objectives consistent with national and local goals and needs, such as those established by Australia’s Oceans Policy. Once these objectives are identified for a particular marine protected area (MPA),an IUCN category is assigned. The assigned category is that one which most closely aligns with the objectives of the MPA. Activities considered appropriate in each reserve must be consistent with the Australian IUCN Reserve Management Principles and are decided in a case by case assessment, based on all the information available for a specific reserve and in a way that provides stakeholders with opportunities to be involved in these decisions in an open and transparent way.
The Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999 provides that:

• the proclamation of a Commonwealth reserve must assign the reserve to an IUCN category and may also assign an IUCN category to any zones
• the Minister must be satisfied that the reserve or zone has the characteristics listed in the Act
• the reserve or zone should be managed in accordance with the Australian IUCN Reserve Management Principles
• the management plan for each Commonwealth reserve must also assign the reserve to an IUCN category.

IUCN definition of a Marine Protected Area (Kelleher & Kenchington, 1992):
Any area of intertidal or subtidal terrain, together with its overlying water and associated flora, fauna and cultural features, which has been reserved by law or other effective means to protect part or all of the enclosed environment.

• to maintain essential ecological and life support systems
• to ensure the sustainable utilization of species and ecosystems
• to preserve biotic diversity

in other words, its objectives are:
• scientific research
• wilderness protection
• preservation of species and genetic diversity
• maintenance of environmental services
• protection of specific natural and cultural features
• tourism and recreation
• education
• sustainable use of resources from natural ecosystems
• maintenance of cultural and traditional attributes

• 1.01 The reserve or zone should be managed primarily for scientific research or environmental monitoring based on the following principles.
• 1.02 Habitats,ecosystems and native species should be preserved in as undisturbed a state as possible.
• 1.03 Genetic resources should be maintained in a dynamic and evolutionary state.
• 1.04 Established ecological processes should be maintained.
• 1.05 Structural landscape features or rock exposures should be safeguarded.
• 1.06 Examples of the natural environment should be secured for scientific studies, environmental monitoring and education, including baseline areas from which all avoidable access is excluded. (typical on land, not in the sea)
• 1.07 Disturbance should be minimised by careful planning and execution of research and other approved activities.
• 1.08 Public access should be limited to the extents consistent with these principles. (the sea suffers enormous damage from waves and storms, by which damage from people pales in insignificance)

• The area should be large enough to ensure the integrity of its ecosystems and to accomplish the management objectives for which it is protected.
• The area should be significantly free of direct human intervention and capable of remaining so. (only the seas around remote islands  qualify where land-based pollution is negligible)
• The conervation of the area's biodiversity should be achievable through protection and not require substantial active management or habitat manipulation.

IUCN ib EPBC 2. Wilderness Area
IUCN 1994 description Category ib: Wilderness Area; Protected Area managed mainly for wilderness protection. Large area of unmodified or slightly modified land and/or sea, retaining its natural character and influence, without permanent or significant habitation, which is protected and managed so as to preserve its natural condition. Australian IUCN reserve management principles (Schedule 8 of the EPBC Regulations 2000)

• 2.01 The reserve or zone should be protected and managed to preserve its unmodified condition based on the following principles.
• 2.02 Future generations should have the opportunity to experience, understand and enjoy reserves or zones that have been largely undisturbed by human action over a long period of time.
• 2.03 The essential attributes and qualities of the environment should be maintained over the long term.
• 2.04 Public access should be provided at levels and of a type that will best serve the physical and spiritual well-being of visitors and maintain the wilderness qualities of the reserve or zone for present and future generations.
• 2.05 Indigenous human communities living at low density and in balance with the available resources should be able to maintain their lifestyle.

• The area should possess high natural quality, be governed primarily by the forces of nature, with human disturbance substantially absent, and be likely to display those attributes if managed as proposed. (most of the coast has been disturbed by land-based pollution)
• The area should contain significant ecological, geological, physiogeographic or other features of scientific, educational, scenic or historic value. (the sea has very little of this, that can be identified)
• The area should offer outstanding opportunities for solitude, enjoyed once the area has been reached, by simple, quiet, non-polluting and non-intrusive means of travel (i.e. non-motorised) (typical of land, not sea)
• The area should be of sufficient size to make practical such preservation and use.

IUCN ii EPBC 3. National Park
IUCN 1994 description: Category ii: National Park; Protected Area managed mainly for ecosystem conservation and recreation. Natural area of land and/or sea, designated to (a) protect the ecological integrity of one or more ecosystems for this and future generations, (b) exclude exploitation or occupation inimical to the purposes of designation of the area, and (c) provide a foundation for spiritual, scientific, educational, recreational and visitor opportunities, all of which must be environmentally and culturally compatible. Australian IUCN reserve management principles (Schedule 8 of the EPBC Regulations 2000)

• 3.01 The reserve or zone should be protected and managed to preserve its natural condition according to the following principles.
• 3.02 Natural and scenic areas of national and international significance should be protected for spiritual, scientific, educational, recreational or tourist purposes.
• 3.03 Representative examples of physiographic regions, biotic communities, genetic resources, and native species should be perpetuated in as natural a state as possible to provide ecological stability and diversity.
• 3.04 Visitor use should be managed for inspirational, educational, cultural and recreational purposes at a level that will maintain the reserve or zone in a natural or near natural state.
• 3.05 Management should seek to ensure that exploitation or occupation inconsistent with these principles does not occur.
• 3.06 Respect should be maintained for the ecological, geomorphologic, sacred and aesthetic attributes for which the reserve or zone was assigned to this category.
• 3.07 The needs of indigenous people should be taken into account, including subsistence resource use, to the extent that they do not conflict with these principles.
• 3.08 The aspirations of traditional owners of land within the reserve or zone, their continuing land management practices, the protection and maintenance of cultural heritage and the benefit the traditional owners derive from enterprises, established in the reserve or zone, consistent with these principles should be recognised and taken into account.

Guidance for selection

• The area should contain a representative sample of major natural regions, features or scenery, where plant and animal species, habitats and geomorphological sites are of special spiritual, scientific, educationsl, recreational and tourist significance.
• The area should be large enough to contain one or more entire ecosystems not materially altered by current human occupation or exploitation.

IUCN iii EPBC 4. Natural Monument
IUCN 1994 description: Category iii :Natural Monument; Protected Area managed for conservation of specific natural features. Area containing one or more specific natural or natural/cultural feature which is of outstanding value because of its inherent rarity, representative or aesthetic qualities or cultural significance. Australian IUCN reserve management principles (Schedule 8 of the EPBC Regulations 2000)

• 4.01 The reserve or zone should be protected and managed to preserve its natural or cultural features based on the following principles.
• 4.02 Specific outstanding natural features should be protected or preserved in perpetuity because of their natural significance, unique or representational quality or spiritual connotations.
• 4.03 Opportunities for research, education, interpretation and public appreciation should be provided to an extent consistent with these principles.
• 4.04 Management should seek to ensure that exploitation or occupation inconsistent with these principles does not occur.
• 4.05 People with rights or interests in the reserve or zone should be entitled to benefits derived from activities in the reserve or zone that are consistent with these principles.

• The area should contain one or more features of outstanding significance (appropriate natural features include spectacular waterfalls, caves, craters, fossil beds, sand dunes and marine features, along with unique or representative fauna and flora; associated cultural features might include cave dwellings, cliff-top forts, archaeological sites or natural sites which have heritage significance to indigenous peoples)
• The area should be large enough to protect the integrity of the features and its immediately related surroundings.

IUCN iv EPBC 5. Habitat/Species Management Area /Nature Conseration Reserve/ Managed Nature Reserve/ Wildlife Sanctuary
IUCN 1994 description: Category iv :Habitat/Species Management Area; Protected Area managed mainly for conservation  through management intervention. Area of land and/or sea subject to active intervention for management purposes so as to ensure the maintenance of habitats and/or to meet the requirements of specific species. Australian IUCN reserve management principles (Schedule 8 of the EPBC Regulations 2000)

• 5.01 The reserve or zone should be managed primarily, including (if necessary) through active intervention, to ensure the maintenance of habitats or to meet the requirements of collections or specific species based on the following principles.
• 5.02 Habitat conditions necessary to protect significant species, groups or collections of species, biotic communities or physical features of the environment should be secured and maintained, if necessary through specific human manipulation.
• 5.03 Scientific research and environmental monitoring that contribute to reserve management should be facilitated as primary activities associated with sustainable resource management.
• 5.04 The reserve or zone may be developed for public education and appreciation of the characteristics of habitats, species or collections and of the work of wildlife management.
• 5.05 Management should seek to ensure that exploitation or occupation inconsistent with these principles does not occur.
• 5.06 People with rights or interests in the reserve or zone should be entitled to benefits derived from activities in the reserve or zone that are consistent with these principles.
• 5.07 If the reserve or zone is declared for the purpose of a botanic garden, it should also be managed for the increase of knowledge, appreciation and enjoyment of Australia's plant heritage by establishing, as an integrated resource,a collection of living and herbarium specimens of Australian and related plants for study, interpretation, conservation and display.

• The area should play an important role in the protection of nature and the survival of species, (incorporating, as appropriate, breeding areas, wetlands, coral reefs, estuaries, forests or spawning areas, including marine feeding beds).
• The area should be one where the protection of the habitat is essential to the well-being of nationally or locally important flora, or to resident or migratory fauna.
• Conservation of these habitats and species should depend upon active intervention by the management authority, if necessary through habitat manipulation (c.f. Category ia)
• The size of the area should depend ont he habitat requirements of the species to be protected and may range from relatively small to very extensive.

IUCN v EPBC 6. Protected Landscape/Seascape
IUCN 1994 description: Category v :Protected Landscape/Seascape:Protected Areas managed mainly for landscape/seascape conservation and recreation. Area of land,with coast and seas as appropriate, where the interaction of people and nature over time has produced an area of distinct character with significant aesthetic, cultural and/or ecological value, and often with high biological diversity. Safeguarding the integrity of this traditional interaction is vital to the protection, maintenance and evolution of such an area. Australian IUCN reserve management principles (Schedule 8 of the EPBC Regulations 2000)

• 6.01 The reserve or zone should be managed to safeguard the integrity of the traditional interactions between people and nature based on the following principles.
• 6.02 The harmonious interaction of nature and culture should be maintained through the protection of landscape or seascape and the continuation of traditional uses, building practices and social and cultural manifestations.
• 6.03 Lifestyles and economic activities that are in harmony with nature, and the preservation of the social and cultural fabric of the communities in the reserve or zone concerned should be supported.
• 6.04 The diversity of landscape, seascape and habitat, and of associated species and ecosystems, should be maintained.
• 6.05 Land and sea uses and activities that are inappropriate in scale or character should not occur.
• 6.06 Opportunities for public enjoyment should be provided through recreation and tourism appropriate in type and scale to the essential qualities of the reserve or zone.
• 6.07 Scientific and educational activities, that will contribute to the long-term well-being of resident populations and to the development of public support for the environmental protection of similar areas,should be encouraged.
• 6.08 Benefits to the local community, and contributions to its wellbeing, through the provision of natural products and services should be sought and promoted if they are consistent with these principles.

• The area should possess a landscape and/or coastal and island seascape of high scenic quality, with diverse associated habitats, flora and fauna along sith manifestations of unique or traditional land-use patterns and social organisations as evidenced in human settlements and local customs, livelihoods and beliefs.
• The area should provide opportunities for public enjoyment through recreation and tourism within its normal lifestyle and economic activities.

IUCN vi EPBC 7. Managed Resource Protected Area
IUCN 1994 description: Category vi :Managed Resource Protected Areas; Protected Area managed mainly for the sustainable use of natural ecosystems. Area containing predominantly unmodified natural systems, managed to ensure long term protection and maintenance of biological diversity, while providing at the same time a sustainable flow of natural products and services to meet community needs. Australian IUCN reserve management principles (Schedule 8 of the EPBC Regulations 2000)

• 7.01 The reserve or zone should be managed mainly for the sustainable use of natural ecosystems based on the following principles.
• 7.02 The biological diversity and other natural values of the reserve or zone should be protected and maintained in the long term.
• 7.03 Management practices should be applied to ensure ecologically sustainable use of the reserve or zone.
• 7.04 Management of the reserve or zone should contribute to regional and national development to the extent that this is consistent with these principles.

• The area should be at least two-thirds in a natural condition, although it may also contain limited areas of modified ecosystems; large commercial plantations would not be appropriate for inclusion.
• The area should be large enough to absorb sustainable resource uses without detriment to its overall long-term natural values.

In addition,under Schedule 8 of the EPBC Regulations, the general administrative principles enshrine the following principles in relation to all Commonwealth reserves:

1. Community participation
2. Effective and adaptive management
3. Precautionary principle
4. Minimum impact
5. Ecologically sustainable use
6. Transparency of decision-making
7. Joint management

Environment Australia web address: www.ea.gov.au/coasts/mpa/index.html
Environment Australia Community Information Unit: Free call 1800 803 772

ISBN 0642548536 Information contained in this booklet may be copied or reproduced for study, research, information or educational purposes, subject to inclusion of an acknowledgment of the source.

Note how the effort to place the marine environment into land-based categories, fits uncomfortably. This process has not been sufficiently thought through, apparently sprouting from the brains of people who have little knowledge or experience with the sea. The sea is a very different environment, having suffered little modification by people. It does not have burnt forests, ploughed and fertilised lands, roads and houses. The number of people found at any one time on the water is always small, their fishing methods leaving few traces. As a consequence, the marine ecosystems are much nearer to pristine condition, such that traditional fisheries conservation methods are more effective than advanced conservation measures on land.

New Zealand's Quota Management System (QMS) protects the sea from overfishing. It aims to conserve viable populations of all species. In this respect all of our ocean and seas conform to IUCN category 6.

Although the land suffers from erosion and loss of fertility, it is not mentioned in the IUCN categories. The sea is in a much more sorry state because it suffers from land-based pollution (mainly from erosion), which has no reciprocal on land. In recent times this threat has been accelerating, threatening all ecosystems, habitats and species. With respect to this large threat, the IUCN categorisation does not seem to make sense in coastal seas, particularly close to large rivers and populations.
 

In California an Interagency Marine Managed Areas Workgroup has developed a scheme for designating marine managed areas in state waters. In 1997 the California Resources Agency found that the existing system of reserve designations, which had developed in a haphazard way over many years, was overly complex and should be simplified. They studied the problem and proposed six categories:

• Marine reserve: protects all living and non-living marine resources from commercial and recreational exploitation, and may limit non-consumptive recreational uses that would compromise such protection.
• Marine Park: protects all living and nonliving marine resources and cultural or recreational features from commercial exploitation while allowing public use, enjoyment and education in a manner consistent with protecting resource values. Some human uses may be restricted to protect resource values.
• Marine Conservation Area: protects some living or geological marine resources (but does not include cultural or recreational values) from certain commercial or recreational exploitation.
• Marine Cultural Preservation Area: protects all cultural resources from commercial or recreational exploitation.
• Marine Recreational Management Area: protects, enhances or restricts recreational opportunities while preserving basic resource values.
• Water Quality Protection Area: protects water quality by prohibiting or limiting point source waste and thermal discharges by special conditions. Controls nonpoint source pollution to the extent practicable.